Drug tests are technical analyzes of biological specimens, such as urine, hair, blood, breath, sweat, and/or oral fluid/saliva - to determine whether a prescribed parent drug or its metabolite is present. The main applications of drug testing include detection of increased steroid performance in sports, employers and parole officers/filters that prohibit drugs prohibited by law (such as marijuana, cocaine, methamphetamine, and heroin) and police officers examining the presence and concentration. alcohol (ethanol) in the blood is commonly referred to as BAC (alcohol content in the blood). BAC tests are usually administered through a breathalyzer while urinalysis is used for most drug testing in sports and workplaces. Many other methods with varying degrees of accuracy, sensitivity (detection/cutoff thresholds), and detection periods exist.
Drug tests may also refer to tests that provide a quantitative chemical analysis of illegal drugs, usually intended to assist responsible drug use.
Video Drug test
Detection Period
The following chart provides an estimate of the detection period for each substance by type of test.
The detection window depends on several factors: drug classes, amount and frequency of use, metabolic rate, body mass, age, overall health, and urine pH. For ease of use, metabolite detection times have been incorporated into each parent drug. For example, heroin and cocaine can only be detected for several hours after use, but its metabolites can be detected for several days in the urine. Graphs represent longer detection times of metabolites.
The results of a fluid or oral saliva test for most mimics blood. The only exceptions are THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and benzodiazepines. Oral fluids will likely detect THC from consumption up to a maximum period of 6-12 hours. This continues to cause difficulties in the detection of THC oral fluids and benzodiazepines.
Inhaling air for most mimics a blood test as well. Due to the very low levels of substances in the air of the breath, liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry should be used to analyze the sample according to the recent publication in which 12 analytes were investigated.
Fast oral fluid products are not approved for use in drug testing programs in the workplace and are not permitted by the FDA. Using rapid oral fluid drug testing in the workplace is prohibited only:
- California
- Kansas
- Maine
- Minnesota
- New York
- Vermont
Maps Drug test
Type
Urine drug screen
Urine analysis is mainly used because of its low cost. Urine drug testing is one of the most commonly used testing methods. An enzyme-multiplied immune test is the most commonly used urinalysis. A complaint has been made about the relatively high level of positive error using this test.
Urine drug tests screen urine to determine the presence of the parent drug or its metabolite. The drug or metabolite level does not predict when the drug was taken or how many patients were used. Instead, it is only a confirmation report that indicates the presence of a parent drug or its metabolite.
Urine drug test is an immunoassay based on the principle of competitive binding. Drugs that may be present in urine specimens compete with each drug conjugate for binding sites in their specific antibodies. During the test, urine specimens migrate upward by capillary action. The drug, if present in a urine specimen under cut-off concentration, will not saturate its specific antibody binding site. The antibodies will then react with the drug-protein conjugate and the visible colored line will appear on the test line area of ​​the particular drug strip.
When an employer requests a drug test from an employee, or the doctor requests a drug test from a patient, employee or patient is usually asked to go to their collection or home. The urine sample passes a certain 'chain of custody' to ensure that it is not tampered with or broken through labs or employee errors. Patient or employee urine is collected in remote locations in a specially designed safe cup, sealed with destructive tape, and sent to a testing laboratory for screening for drugs (usually Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration 5 panels). The first step in the test site is to divide urine into two aliquots. One aliquot was first filtered for drugs using an immunoassay-carrying analyzer as the initial screen. To ensure the integrity of the specimen and to detect the possibility of adulterers, other parameters such as urine creatinine, pH, and specific gravity were tested together in this initial test. If the urine screen is positive then another aliquot of the sample is used to confirm the findings by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS) or liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry methodology. If requested by a doctor or employer, certain drugs are screened individually; this is generally a medicinal part of a chemical class that, for one of many reasons, is considered more susceptible to harassment or concern. For example, oxycodone and diamorphine can be tested, both sedative analgesics. If such a test is not specifically requested, more general tests (in previous cases, tests for opiates) will detect drugs, but the employer or doctor will not benefit from the identity of the drug.
Employment related test results are forwarded to the medical examination office (MRO) where a medical doctor reviews the results. If the screen results is negative, the MRO notifies the employer that the employee does not have the drug detected in the urine, usually within 24 hours. However, if the immunoassay and GC-MS test results are not negative and indicate the concentration level of the parent drug or metabolite above the prescribed limit, the MRO contacts the employee to determine if there is a valid reason - such as medical treatment or prescription.
Instant drug testing in place is a more cost-effective method for effectively detecting drug abuse among employees, as well as in rehabilitation programs to monitor patient progress. This instant test can be used for urine and saliva tests. Although the accuracy of such tests varies with the manufacturer, some kits have a very high degree of accuracy, which is closely related to laboratory test results.
Breath test
The breath test is a widespread method for quickly determining alcohol poisoning. The breath test measures the concentration of alcohol in the body through the breath of the lungs. There are various instruments used to measure the alcohol content of a person despite his breathing. Breathalyzer is a widely known instrument that was developed in 1954 and contains chemicals unlike other breath testing instruments. The more modern instruments used are infrared light absorption devices and fuel cell detectors, these two testers are microprocessor controlled which means the operator only needs to press the start button.
To get an accurate reading on the breath test apparatus, the individual must blow about 6 seconds and need to hold about 1.1 to 1.5 liters of breath. For a breath test for accurate results and really the operator should take steps such as avoiding measuring "mouth alcohol" which is the result of regurgitation, belching or intake of alcoholic beverages recently. To avoid measuring "mouth alcohol" the operator should not let the individual take the test to consume any ingredients for at least fifteen minutes before the breath test. When pulled over for a driving offense if an individual in the United States refuses to take a breath test that a person's license can be suspended for a period of 6 to 12 months.
Hair test
Hair analysis to detect drug abuse has been used by court systems in the United States, Britain, Canada and other countries around the world. In the United States, hair testing has been accepted in court cases as forensic evidence following the Frye Rules, Federal Rules of Proof, and Daubert Rules. Thus, the results of legal and scientific hair testing are recognized as accepted evidence.
Although some lower courts may have received hair test evidence, there is no court decision that controls either a federal or state system that states that any type of hair test is reliable.
Hair tests are now recognized both in the UK and US courts. There are guidelines for hair testing that have been published by the Society of Hair Testing (a private company in France) that sets the markers for testing and cutoff concentrations that need to be tested. Drugs of abuse that can be detected include Cannabis, Cocaine, Amphetamines and new drugs to the UK such as Mephedrone.
Alcohol
In contrast to other drugs consumed, alcohol is stored directly in the hair. For this reason the investigative procedure seeks products directly from ethanol metabolism. The main part of alcohol is oxidized in the human body. This means being released as water and carbon dioxide. One part of the alcohol reacts with the fatty acid to produce the ester. The amount of concentration of four fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE: ethyl myristate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl oleate and ethyl stearate) is used as an indicator of alcohol consumption. The amount found in hair is measured in a nanogram (one nanogram equals only one billion grams), but with the benefits of modern technology, it is possible to detect such small amounts. In detecting ethyl glucuronate, or EtG, the test can detect the amount in the picogram (one picogram equals 0.001 nanogram).
However, there is one major difference between most drugs and alcohol metabolites in the way they get into the hair: on one side like other drugs FAEEs get into the hair through keratinocytes, the cells responsible for hair growth. These cells form hairs in the roots and then grow through the surface of the skin taking up any substance with them. On the other hand, sebaceous glands produce FAEEs in the scalp and these migrate together with sebum along the hair shaft (AuwÃÆ'¤rter et al., 2001, Pragst et al., 2004). So this gland not only lubricates the hair part that grows only 0.3 mm per day on the surface of the skin, but also the growth of more mature hair, giving it with a protective layer of fat.
FAEEs (nanograms = one by one billion grams) appear in the hair in almost an order of magnitude lower than (the order of magnitude relevant) EtG (picogram = one trillion per gram). Technically possible to measure FAEE since 1993, and the first study to report on hair detection of EtG was done by Sachs in 1993.
In practice, most of the hairs sent for analysis have been treated cosmetically in several ways (bleached, permed, etc.). It has been shown that FAEEs are not significantly affected by such treatments (Hartwig et al., 2003a). The concentration of FAEE on hair from other body sites can be interpreted in the same way as scalp hair (Hartwig et al., 2003b).
Testing alleged substance
The estimated substance test identifies suspicious substances, substances or surfaces in which trace drugs are considered, rather than testing individuals through biological methods such as urine or hair testing. This test involves mixing suspicious ingredients with chemicals to trigger discoloration to indicate if there is a cure. Most are now available over-the-counter, and do not require a lab to read the results.
The benefits to this method include that people suspected of using drugs do not need to be confronted or aware of the tests. Only a small amount of material is needed to obtain the results, and can be used to test powders, pills, capsules, crystals, or organic materials. There is also the ability to detect illicit substances when mixed with other forbidden materials. This test is used for general screening purposes, offering general results for the presence of a wide variety of drugs, including Heroin, Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Amphetamine, Ecstasy/MDMA, Methadone, Ketamine, PCP, PMA, DMT, MDPV, and possibly detecting the growing synthetic designer drug quickly. Separate tests for Marijuana/Hashish are also available.
There are five major color test reagents used for general screening purposes. Marquis reagents change into different colors when confronted with different substances. Dille-Koppanyi reagents use two chemical solutions that change the blue-purple color in the presence of barbiturates. The duquenois-Levine reagent is a series of chemical solutions that turn into purple when cannabis vegetation is added. Van Urk reagent turns blue-purple when in the presence of LSD. Scott Test's chemical solution appears as a faint blue for the base of cocaine.
screen of saliva/Oral Drug-based medicine
Oral/oral drug-based tests can usually detect use for the previous few days. Better to detect the use of substances recently. THC can only be detected for 2-24 hours in most cases. On drug test sites are allowed per Department of Labor.
Detection in saliva tests begins immediately after the use of the following substances, and lasts for approximately at the following times:
- Alcohol: 6-12 hours
- Ganja: 1-24 hours
The disadvantage of saliva-based drug testing is that it is not approved by the FDA or SAMHSA for use with DOT/Federal Mandated Drug Testing. Oral fluid is not considered a bio-hazard unless there is visible blood; However, it should be treated with caution.
Sweat remedy screen
Sweat patches attached to the skin to collect sweat for a long time (up to 14 days). These are used by child protection services, parole departments, and other government agencies related to prolonged drug use, when urine tests are impractical. There are also surface drug tests that test the drug group's metabolite of the elderly in drug residues remaining in perspiration.
Blood
The blood sample test measures whether a drug or a metabolite exists in the body at any given time. This type of test is considered to be the most accurate way to know if a person is drunk. Blood drug tests are rarely used because they require specialized equipment and medically trained administrators.
Depending on how much marijuana is consumed, it can usually be detected in a blood test within six hours of consumption. After six hours, marijuana concentration in blood decreased significantly. It usually disappears completely within 30 days.
Anabolic steroids
Anabolic steroids are used to improve performance in sports and because they are banned in most high-level competitions, drug testing is widely used to enforce this ban. This is especially true for individual sports (rather than teams) such as athletics and cycling.
Random drug testing
May occur anytime, usually when the investigator has reason to believe that a substance may be misused by the subject by behavior or immediately after an employee-related incident occurs during working hours. Test protocols are usually in accordance with national medical standards, candidates are given up to 120 minutes to produce a reasonable sample of urine from the moment of commencement (in some instances this period may be extended at the discretion of the examiner).
Diagnostic filtering
In the case of life-threatening symptoms, unconsciousness, or bizarre behavior in emergency situations, screening for common drugs and toxins may help find the cause, called toxicology tests or tox screen to show a wider area of ​​substances that may go beyond self-administered medicines. These tests can also be performed post-mortem during an autopsy in cases where death is not expected. The test is usually done within 96 hours (4 days) after the desire for the test is realized. Both the urine sample and the blood sample can be tested. Blood samples are routinely used to detect ethanol/methanol and ASA/paracetamol intoxication. Various panels are used to filter urine samples for common materials, eg. triage 8 that detects amphetamines, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methadone, opiates, marijuana, barbiturates and tricyclic antidepressants. Results are given in 10-15 minutes.
A similar screening can be used to evaluate the possible use of date rape drugs. This is usually done on a urine sample.
Methodology
Before testing the sample, the tamper-proven seal is checked for integrity. If it appears to have been damaged or damaged, the laboratory rejects the sample and does not test it.
Furthermore, samples must be made testable. Urine and oral fluids may be used "as is" for some tests, but other tests require drugs to be extracted from the urine. Hair strands, patches, and blood should be prepared before testing. Hair is washed to remove the source of secondhand drugs on the surface of the hair, then keratin is broken down using enzymes. Blood plasma may need to be separated by centrifuge from blood cells before testing. The sweat patch is open and the sweat collection component is removed and immersed in a solvent to disperse the existing medicines.
Laboratory-based drug testing is done in two steps. The first step is the screening test, which is an immunoassay-based test applied to all samples. The second step, known as a confirmatory test, is usually performed by the laboratory using highly specific chromatographic techniques and is only applied to positive samples during screening tests. Screening tests are usually performed by immunoassays (EMIT, ELISA, and RIA are the most common). The "dipstick" testing method that can provide screening test capabilities for field researchers has been developed at the University of Illinois.
After a positive sample suspected was detected during screening, the sample was tested using a confirmation test . Negative samples on screening tests were discarded and reported negative. Confirmation tests in most laboratories (and all SAMHSA certified labs) are conducted using mass spectrometry, and are precise but costly. False positive samples from screening tests are almost always negative on the confirmation test. Positive samples during the screening and confirmation tests were reported positive on the entity that ordered the test. Most laboratories store positive samples for months or years in the event of a disputed result or lawsuit. For drug testing in the workplace, positive outcomes are generally not confirmed without a review by the Medical Examination Officer who will normally interview the drug test subjects.
Urine drug test
Urine test kit test is available as an on-site test, or laboratory analysis. Urinalysis is the most common type of test and is used by a federally required drug testing program and is considered a Gold Standard for drug testing. Urine-based tests have been established in most courts for over 30 years. However, the urinalysis conducted by the Department of Defense has been challenged for the reliability of cocaine metabolite testing. There are two metabolites associated with cocaine, benzoylecgonine (BZ) and ecgonine methyl ester (EME), the first (BZ) created by the presence of cocaine in acoustic solution with a pH greater than 7.0, while the second (EME) result of the metabolic process real people. The presence of EME confirms actual cocaine consumption by humans, while the presence of BZ is indicative only. BZ without EME is proof of sample contamination, but the US Department of Defense has chosen not to test EME in its urinalysis program.
A number of different analyzes (defined as unknown substances being tested for) are available on the Urine Drug Screen.
Spray drug test
Spray drug test (sweat) is non-invasive. It is a simple process to collect the necessary specimens, no bathroom required, no laboratory required for analysis, and the test itself is difficult to manipulate and resist to damage. The detection window is long and can detect recent drug use within a few hours.
There are also some disadvantages for spray or sweat tests. There is not much variation in this drug test, only a number of drugs can be detected, prices tend to be higher, and inconclusive results can be generated by variations in the level of sweat production in the donor. They also have relatively long specimen collection periods and are more susceptible to contamination than other common forms of testing.
Hair test drug
Hair-drug tests are a method that can detect drug use for longer periods of time, and are often used for highly-safe-critical positions where there is no zero tolerance for the use of illegal drugs. The standard hair follicle screen covers a period of 30 to 90 days. Hair growth is usually at a rate of 0.5 inches per month. Hair samples are cut close to the scalp and 80 to 120 strands of hair are required for the test. In the absence of hair on the head, body hair can be used as an acceptable substitute. These include facial hair, armpits, arms, and legs or even pubic hair. Because body hair grows at different levels of head hair, the time frame changes, with scientists estimating that drug use can be detected in body hair for up to 12 months. Currently, most entities that use hair testing have established the consequences for an individual who expels hair to avoid a hair drug test.
The claim that a hair test can not be tampered with has proven debatable. One study has shown that THC is not easily stored in epithelial cells so it is possible for cosmetics and other forms of counterfeiting to reduce the number of testable cannabinoids in hair samples.
Legality, ethics and politics
The federal drug testing results require equal effects from simply extending to the trucking industry the right to conduct drug tests, and have argued that the latter approach will be effective at a lower cost.
Psychologist Tony Buon has criticized the use of drug testing in the workplace for a number of reasons, including:
- Disabled Technology: Real-world testing performance is much lower than that claimed by its promoters. Buon suggests that tests may be sufficient for rehabilitation and maintenance situations, perhaps sufficient for pre-employment situations, but not to fire employees.
- Ethical Issues: Because of the fairly simple way that an employee can cancel a test, drug testing should be closely monitored. This means the specimens should be observed leaving the body. Many legal objections are currently filed in court regarding drug testing leading to legal requirements of prior notice, consent, legal process, and reason.
- False focus: As has been demonstrated with the Employee Assistance Program, the focus of management attention should be on reducing work performance. Buon suggests effective management practices are a much better approach to managing alcohol in the workplace and other drug problems.
Tony Buon has also been reported by CIPD as stating that "drug tests catch stupid drug users who know how to beat the test".
United Kingdom
A 2004 study by Independent Inquiry into Drug Testing at Work found that attempts by employers to force employees to take potentially challenged drug trials as a violation of privacy under the Human Rights Act 1998 and Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights. However, this does not apply to industries where drug testing is a matter of security and personal and public security rather than productivity.
United States
In consultation with Dr. Carlton Turner, President Ronald Reagan issued Executive Order 12564. Thus, he instituted mandatory drug testing for all employees of executive level and safety-sensitive civil servants. This was opposed in court by the National Treasury Employees Union. In 1988, this challenge was considered by the US Supreme Court. Similar challenges resulted in the Court expanding the concept of a drug-free workplace to the private sector. These decisions are then incorporated into the direction of the White House Drug Control Strategy issued by President George H.W. Bush in 1989. All defendants serving a federal or federal supervised trial sentence must file at least three drug tests. Failure of a drug test can be interpreted as possession of a controlled substance, resulting in the removal and imprisonment mandatory.
There is an inconsistent evaluation result on whether advanced pretrial drug testing has a beneficial effect.
A positive test may result in a guarantee not being granted, or if a guarantee has been granted, to cancel a retraction or other sanction. Arizona also adopted legislation in 1987 which authorized mandatory drug testing of criminal detainees for the purpose of informing pretrial exemption decisions, and the District of Columbia has had similar laws since the 1970s. It has been argued that one of the problems with such testing is that there is often insufficient time between arrests and warranty decisions to confirm positive results using GC/MS technology. It has also been argued that such testing potentially implies the Fifth Amendment privilege of self-torture, the right to legal process (including prohibitions on the collection of evidence in a way that surprises conscience or is an outrageous government measure), and the prohibition against unreasonable. search and seizure contained in the Fourth Amendment.
According to Henriksson, an anti-drug appeal from the Reagan administration "creates an environment in which many entrepreneurs feel compelled to implement drug testing programs because failure to do so may be considered as drug use.These fears are easily exploited by aggressive marketing and salespeople, who often overstate over test scores and paint a grim picture of the consequences of failing to use the drug testing products or services offered. "On March 10, 1986, the Organized Crime Commission asked all US companies to test employees for drug use. In 1987, nearly 25% of Fortune 500 companies used drug tests.
According to an uncontrolled self-report study conducted by DATIA and Society for Human Resource Management in 2012 (a sample of 6,000 randomly selected human resource professionals), professional human resources reported the following results after applying a drug testing program: 19% of the company reported a subjective increase in employee productivity, 16% reported a decrease in employee turnover (8% reported increase), and unspecified percentages reported decreased absenteeism and increased incidence of workers compensation.
According to US Chamber of Commerce 70% of all illegal drug users are employed. Some industries have high rates of employee drug use such as construction (12.8%), improvement (11.1%), and hospitality (7.9-16.3%).
Australia
A person who does business or business (PCBU - a new term covering employers) has a duty under the occupational health and safety (WHS) law to ensure workers affected by alcohol or other drugs do not place themselves or others at risk of injury work. Prevention and workplace policies can help change the norms and culture around substance abuse.
All organizations - large and small - can benefit from an agreed policy on alcohol and drug abuse that applies to all workers. Such a policy should be part of an overall organization of health and safety management systems. PCBUs are encouraged to establish policies and procedures, in consultation with workers, to constructively manage alcohol and other drug-related hazards in their workplaces. Comprehensive workplace alcohol and other drug policies should apply to everyone in the workplace and include prevention, education, counseling and rehabilitation arrangements. In addition, the roles and responsibilities of managers and supervisors should be clearly described.
All drug testing in Australian workplace must comply with Australian/NZS4308: 2008 Australian standards.
In Victoria, a roadside salivary test detected drugs containing:
- THC (Delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol), active component in cannabis
- methamphetamine, found in drugs such as "speed", "base", "ice", and "crystal meth"
- MDMA (Methylenedioxymethamphetamine), known as ecstasy
In February 2016, a New South Wales judge "freed a man who tested positive for marijuana". He has been arrested and charged with a positive test during a roadside drug test, although he has not smoked for nine days. He relied on the advice previously given to him by the police.
Rejection
In the US federal criminal system, refusing to take a drug test triggers an automatic retraction from probation or supervised release.
In Victoria, Australia car drivers have the option to refuse a drug test. Refusing to undergo drug tests or refusing to undergo secondary drug tests after the first, triggering automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of 2 years and a fine of AUD $ 1000. The second rejection triggers automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of 4 years and a larger fine.
Historical case
- In 1993, Meritorious Marine Sergeant Steve Steinmetz refused to apply for further drug screening on the grounds that it violated his 4th and 5th Amendments against unwarranted search and self-mortification. He was a military tribunal and was given Bad Discharge Behavior from the United States Marine Corps in 1994 for refusing to comply with "legitimate order". He was threatened with a forced medical procedure to get a sample if he was imprisoned. Said Marine stated, "It will not happen". He was released without imprisonment.
- In 2000, the Australian Mining Company of South Blackwater Coal Ltd with 400 employees enforced the drug testing procedure, and the union advised its members to refuse to take the test, in part because positive results do not always indicate the current damage; workers are silenced by the company without paying for a week.
- In 2003, sixteen members of the Chicago White Sox were considered refusing to take a drug test, in the hope of making mandatory steroid testing.
- In 2006, Levy County, Florida, a volunteer librarian resigned en masse rather than a drug test.
- In 2010, heavy lifting heavyweight Iranians refused to submit to drug tests passed by the Iran Weightlifting League.
See also
- Hassle drug test
- The Drug-Free Workplace Act of 1988
- Equine drug testing
- Toxicology forensics
- Hit (drugs)
- Alleged and confirmation test
- School district drug policy
- Urinalysis
- Occupational health problems of using cannabis
References
External links
- National Institute on Drug Abuse
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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