Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell , ( ; May 18, 1872 - February 2, 1970) is a philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, author, social critic , the politics of the British activist, and the Nobel laureate. At various points in his life, Russell considers himself a liberal, socialist and pacifist, but he also admits that he "never did these things, in a deep sense". Russell was born in Monmouthshire to become one of the most prominent aristocratic families in England.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russell led Britain's "insurrection against idealism". He is regarded as one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, colleagues G.Ã, E. Moore and protà © Ã… © gÃÆ'Ã… © Ludwig Wittgenstein. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest logicians of the 20th century. With A. N. Whitehead he writes Principia Mathematica , an attempt to create a logical basis for mathematics. His philosophical essay "On Denoting" has been regarded as a "philosophical paradigm". His work has a major influence on mathematics, logic, set theory, linguistics, artificial intelligence, cognitive science, computer science (see type theory and type systems) and philosophy, especially language philosophy, epistemology and metaphysics.
Russell is a prominent anti-war activist and he fights for anti-imperialism. Sometimes, he advocates a preventive nuclear war, before the opportunities afforded by atomic monopolies have passed and are "greeted with enthusiasm" of world governments. He went to prison for his pacifism during World War I. Later, Russell concluded that the war against Nazi Germany Adolf Hitler was required "lower than two crimes" and criticized Stalinist totalitarianism, attacking US involvement in the Vietnam War and a clear supporter of disarmament nuclear weapons. In 1950, Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his significant and significant writings in which he won the ideals of humanity and freedom of thought".
Video Bertrand Russell
Biography
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Bertrand Russell was born on May 18, 1872 in Ravenscroft, Trellech, Monmouthshire, into an influential and liberal British noble family. His parents, Viscount and Viscountess Amberley, were radical for their day. Lord Amberley approved his wife's affair with their children's instructor, the biologist Douglas Spalding. Both are early supporters of birth control at this time considered a scandal. Lord Amberley was an atheist and his atheism was proven when he asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russell's secular baptize. Mill died years after Russell's birth, but his writings had a profound effect on Russell's life.
Her father-in-law, Earl Russell, had been asked twice by Queen Victoria to form a government, serving her as Prime Minister in the 1840s and 1860s. The Russells have been prominent in the UK for centuries before, ruling and slaves with the emergence of the Tudor dynasty (see: Duke of Bedford). They established themselves as one of the leading British Whig families, and participated in any major political event of the Liquidation of the Monasteries in 1536-1540 until the Great Revolution in 1688-1689 and the Great Reform Act in 1832.
Lady Amberley is the daughter of Lord and Lady Stanley of Alderley. Russell is often afraid of the mockery of his maternal grandmother, one of the campaigns for women's education.
Childhood and adolescence
Russell has two siblings: Frank's brother (nearly seven years older than Bertrand), and Rachel's sister (four years older). In June 1874, Russell's mother died of diphtheria, followed immediately by Rachel's death. In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis after a long period of depression. Frank and Bertrand are placed in the care of their Victorian father's grandparents, who live in Pembroke Lodge in Richmond Park. His grandfather, former Prime Minister Earl Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a good old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, Countess Russell (nÃÆ' Â © e Lady Frances Elliot), is a dominant family figure for Russel's childhood and teenage years.
The Countess came from a Scottish Presbyterian family, and successfully petitioned the Chancery Court to set aside the provisions in Amberley's will that require children to be raised as agnostic. Despite his religious conservatism, he held a progressive view in other fields (accepting Darwinism and supporting the Irish House Rules), and his influence on Bertrand Russell's view of social justice and clinging to the principle of staying with him throughout his life. (One can challenge the view that Bertrand defends his principles, based on his own famous quotation: "I will never die for my beliefs because I may be wrong.") His favorite Bible verse, 'Do not follow many people to do evil' (Exodus 23: 2), became his motto. The atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge is one of frequent prayer, emotional repression, and formality; Frank reacted to this with an open rebellion, but young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings.
Russell's adolescence is very quiet, and he often thinks of suicide. He says in his autobiography that his highest interest is in religion and mathematics, and that only his desire to know more mathematics prevents him from committing suicide. He was educated at home by a series of tutors. When Russell was eleven years old, his brother Frank introduced him to Euclid's work, which changed his life.
During these formative years he also discovered the works of Percy Bysshe Shelley. In his autobiography, he writes: "I spend all my free time reading it, and learning with all my heart, without knowing anyone I can talk about what I think or feel, I used to reflect on how wonderful it is to know Shelley, and wonder do I have to meet a living person with whom I have to be very sympathetic ". Russell claims that starting from the age of 15, he spends a lot of time thinking about the validity of Christian dogma, which he finds very unconvincing. At this age, he comes to the conclusion that there is no free will and, two years later, that there is no life after death. Finally, at the age of 18, after reading Mill's "Autobiography," he abandoned the "First Cause" argument and became an atheist.
University and first marriage
Russell won a scholarship to read for Mathematical Tripos at Trinity College, Cambridge, and started his studies there in 1890, taking as coach Robert Rumsey Webb. He became acquainted with younger George Edward Moore and was under the influence of Alfred North Whitehead, who recommended it to the Cambridge Apostles. He quickly distinguished himself in mathematics and philosophy, graduating as a seventh Wrangler in the former in 1893 and becoming Fellow in the latter in 1895.
Russell first met American Quaker Alys Pearsall Smith when he was 17 years old. He became a friend of the Pearsall Smith family - they know him primarily as "the grandson of Lord John" and enjoy flaunting him. He traveled with them to the continent; it was in their company that Russell visited the Paris Exhibition of 1889 and was able to board the Eiffel Tower as soon as it was completed.
He soon fell in love with the high-powered, authoritative Alys, who was a graduate of Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia, and, contrary to his grandmother's wishes, married her on December 13, 1894. Their marriage began to fall apart in 1901 when it happened to Russell, , that she no longer loves her. She asks if she loves him and he replies that he does not like it. Russell also disliked Alys mother, finding her controlling and cruel. It was the cage shell of marriage and they finally divorced in 1921, after a long period of separation. During this period, Russell has a passionate (and often simultaneous) affair with a number of women, including Lady Ottoline Morrell and actress Lady Constance Malleson. Some suggest that at this point he had an affair with Vivienne Haigh-Wood, an English teacher and writer, and first wife of T. S. Eliot.
Initial career
Russell began publishing works in 1896 with the German Social Democracy, a study in politics which is an early indication of lifelong interest in political and social theory. In 1896 he taught German social democracy at the London School of Economics. He is a member of the Coefisien dining club of social reformers formed in 1902 by the campaigns of Fabian Sidney and Beatrice Webb.
He is now embarking on an intensive study on the basis of mathematics at Trinity. In 1898 he wrote the Essay on Geometry Basics which discusses Cayley-Klein metrics used for non-Euclidean geometry. He attended the International Congress of Philosophy in Paris in 1900 where he met Giuseppe Peano and Alessandro Padoa. The Italians had responded to Georg Cantor, making the science of set theory; they gave Russell their literature including the Formulario mathematico. Russell was impressed by Peano's precise arguments in Congress, reading the literature after returning to England, and finding Russell's paradox. In 1903 he published The Principles of Mathematics, a work on the fundamentals of mathematics. This advances the logical thesis, that mathematics and logic are one and the same.
At the age of 29, in February 1901, Russell underwent what he called "a kind of mystical illumination", having witnessed the acute suffering of Whitehead's wife in an angina attack. "I find myself filled with semi-mystical feelings about beauty... and with a desire almost as deeply as Buddhism to find some philosophy that should make human life sustainable," Russel would later recall. "At the end of the five minutes, I've become a completely different person."
In 1905 he wrote the essay "On Denoting", which was published in the journal philosophical Mind . Russell was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1908. Three volumes of Principia Mathematica, written by Whitehead, were published between 1910 and 1913. This, together with the previous The Principles Maths , soon made Russell famous in his field.
In 1910 he became a lecturer at Cambridge University at Trinity College where he studied. He is considered to be a Fellowship, which will give him a voice in the college government and protect him from being fired for his opinion, but passed because he is "anti-scholar", basically because he is agnostic. He was approached by Austrian engineering student Ludwig Wittgenstein, who became his PhD student. Russell views Wittgenstein as a genius and successor who will continue his work on logic. He spent hours dealing with various Wittgenstein phobias and was often discouraged. This often drained Russell's energy, but Russell continued to be fascinated by him and encouraged his academic development, including the publication of Wittgenstein Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus in 1922. Russell delivered his lecture on Logical Atomism, his version of these ideas, 1918, before the end of World War I. Wittgenstein, at that time, served in the Austrian Army and then spent nine months at an Italian prisoner's war camp at the end of the conflict.
First World War
During World War I, Russell was one of the few people involved in active pacifist activities and in 1916, due to the lack of a Fellowship, he was dismissed from Trinity College after his conviction under the Defense Realm Act 1914. He then described this as unlawful means countries used to violate freedom of expression, in Free Mind and Official Propaganda. Russell played an important role in the Leeds Convention in June 1917, a historic event that saw more than a thousand "anti-war socialists" gather; many became delegates of the Independent Labor Party and the Socialist Party, united in their peaceful love beliefs and advocating a peaceful solution. The international press reported that Russell appeared alongside Labor lawmakers, including Ramsay MacDonald and Philip Snowden, as well as former Liberal MP and anti-conscription campaign, Professor Arnold Lupton. After the event, Russell told Mrs Ottoline Morrell that, "To my surprise, when I woke up to speak, I was given the biggest applause possible to give anyone".
The Trinity incident resulted in Russell being fined Ã, £ 100, which he refused to pay in the hope that he would be sent to prison, but his book was sold at auction to raise money. The books were bought by friends; he then kept a copy of the King James Bible stamped "Seized by the Cambridge Police".
The next conviction for public scrutiny against inviting the United States to enter the war on the United Kingdom resulted in a six-month prison sentence in Brixton prison (see Bertrand Russell's view of society) in 1918. He then said of his imprisonment:
I found the prison in many ways quite fun. I have no engagements, no hard decisions to make, no fear of the caller, no interruption to my work. I read very much; I wrote a book, "Introduction to Math Philosophy"... and started working on "Mind Analysis"
Russell restored to Trinity in 1919, resigned in 1920, was Tarner Lecturer 1926 and became a Fellow again from 1944 to 1949.
In 1924, Bertrand again received press attention while attending a "banquet" at the House of Commons with renowned campaigners, including Arnold Lupton, who had been a Member of Parliament and also under imprisonment for "passive resistance to the military or navy".
GH Hardy about the Trinity controversy and Russell's private life
In 1941, GH Hardy wrote a 61-page pamphlet titled Bertrand Russell and Trinity - published later as a book by Cambridge University Press with a preface by CD Broad - in which he gave an authoritative account of Russell 1916 dismissal from Trinity College, explains that reconciliation between college and Russell then takes place and provides details about Russell's personal life. Hardy writes that Russell's dismissal has caused a scandal as most Fellows of the College oppose the decision. The next pressure from Fellows pushed the Board to return Russell. In January 1920, it was announced that Russell had accepted a recovery offer from Trinity and would begin teaching from October. In July 1920, Russell applied for a year's leave; this is approved. He spent years lecturing in China and Japan. In January 1921, it was announced by Trinity that Russell had resigned and his resignation had been accepted. The resignation, Hardy explains, is completely voluntary and not the result of another argument.
The reason for the resignation, according to Hardy, is that Russell is having a tough time in his private life with divorce and subsequent remarriage. Russell considered asking Trinity for another year's leave but decided against it, as this would be an "unusual exercise" and the situation had the potential to become a snowball into another controversy. Although Russell did the right thing, in Hardy's opinion, the reputation of Higher Education suffered due to Russell's resignation since the 'learning world' knew about Russell's dispute with Trinity but not because of the already recovered crack. In 1925, Russell was asked by the Trinity College Council to provide Tarner Lectures to the Philosophy of the Sciences; this would later become the basis for one of the best books Russell received from Hardy: Material Analysis , published in 1927. In the foreword of this pamphlet, Hardy wrote:
I want to emphasize that Russell himself is not responsible, directly or indirectly, for writing pamphlets... I wrote it without his knowledge and, when I sent him a script and asked for permission to print it, I suggested that, unless it contained an incorrect fact, he should not comment on that. He agreed to this... no words were changed as a result of his advice.
Between the war
In August 1920, Russell traveled to Russia as part of an official delegation sent by the British government to investigate the impact of the Russian Revolution. He wrote a series of four-part articles, titled "Soviet Russia - 1920", for the US magazine The Nation . He met Vladimir Lenin and had an hour-long conversation with him. In his autobiography, he mentions that he considers Lenin disappointing, feels his "naughty cruelty" and compares it with "professors who have an opinion". He drove in the Volga with steamers. His experience destroyed the previous tentative support for the revolution. He wrote a book on Practice and Theory of Bolshevism about his experience on this journey, taken with a group of 24 others from England, all coming home with a good thought about the rà ©  © gime, though Russell's tried to change their minds. For example, he told them that he heard shots fired in the middle of the night and was convinced it was a silent execution, but others thought it was just a car that backfired.
Russell's lover, Dora Black, an English writer, feminist and socialist activist, visits Russia independently at the same time; In contrast to his reaction, he was enthusiastic about the revolution.
The following fall, Russell, accompanied by Dora, visited Peking (as it became known in the West) to lecture philosophy for a year. He left with optimism and hope, seeing China as it was on a new path. Other scholars present in China at the time included John Dewey and Rabindranath Tagore, Indian Nobel laureate poets. Before leaving China, Russell became seriously ill with pneumonia, and a false report about his death was published in the Japanese press. When the couple visited Japan on their return journey, Dora took on the role of rejecting the local press by passing out a notice that read "Mr. Bertrand Russell, who has died according to the Japanese press, can not give interviews to Japanese journalists". Apparently they found this rude and reacted with annoyance.
Dora was six months pregnant when the couple returned to England on August 26, 1921. Russell arranged a hasty divorce from Alys, married Dora six days after the divorce settled, on September 27, 1921. Russell's children with Dora were John Conrad Russell, Earl to -4 Russell, born on November 16, 1921, and Katharine Jane Russell (now Lady Katharine Tait), born on December 29, 1923. Russell supports her family all this time by writing popular books that explain the things of physics, ethics, and education to common people.
From 1922 to 1927, Russells divided their time between London and Cornwall, spending the summer in Porthcurno. In the 1922 and 1923 elections, Russell stood as Labor's candidate in the Chelsea constituency, but only on the basis that he knew he was highly unlikely to be elected in a safe Conservative chair, and he was not on either occasion.
Together with Dora, Russell founded the experimental Beacon Hill School in 1927. The school was run from a series of different locations, including the original place at Russells residence, Telegraph House, near Harting, West Sussex. On July 8, 1930, Dora gave birth to her third child, Harriet Ruth. After he left school in 1932, Dora continued it until 1943.
On a tour through the United States in 1927, Russell met Barry Fox (later Barry Stevens) who became a famous Gestalt therapist and writer in the following years. Russell and Fox developed an intensive relationship. In the words of Fox: "... for three years we are very close." Fox sent his daughter, Judith to Beacon Hill School for some time. From 1927 to 1932 Russell wrote 34 letters to Fox.
After the death of his older brother, Frank, in 1931, Russell became Earl Russell's 3rd.
Russell's marriage to Dora grew increasingly tenuous, and it reached the top because she had two children with an American journalist, Griffin Barry. They parted ways in 1932 and eventually divorced. On January 18, 1936, Russell married his third wife, an Oxford scholar named Patricia ("Peter") Spence, who has been the nanny of his children since 1930. Russell and Peter have one son, Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, 5, who became a prominent historian and one of the leading figures of the Liberal Democrats.
Russell returned to the London School of Economics to lecture on power science in 1937.
During the 1930s, Russell became a close friend and collaborator of V. K. Krishna Menon, secretary of the Indian League, the most important lobby in the United Kingdom for self-government in India.
Second World War
Russell opposes weaponry against Nazi Germany. In 1937 he wrote in a private letter: "If Germany succeeds in sending troops to England, we must do our best to treat them as visitors, give them a place and invite commanders and heads to dinner with the prime minister." In 1940, he changed his view that avoiding full-scale world war was more important than defeating Hitler. He concluded that Adolf Hitler took over all of Europe would be a permanent threat to democracy. In 1943, he adopted the attitude toward large-scale warfare: "War is always a great crime, but in some extreme extreme circumstances it may be a lesser evil of two evils."
Before World War II, Russell taught at the University of Chicago, then moved to Los Angeles to study at the UCLA Department of Philosophy. He was appointed professor at City College of New York (CCNY) in 1940, but after a public protest the appointment was overturned by a court ruling stating he was "morally unworthy" to teach on campus because of his opinion, particularly relating to sexual morality, in Marriage and Moral (1929). But the matter was brought to New York High Court by Jean Kay who feared her daughter would be harmed by the appointment, even though her daughter was not a student at CCNY. Many intellectuals, led by John Dewey, protested his treatment. Albert Einstein's often quoted quotation that "the great spirits always face the hard contradictions of mediocre thought" came from his open letter, dated 19 March 1940, to Morris Raphael Cohen, a professor emeritus at CCNY, who supported Russell's appointment. Dewey and Horace M. Kallen edit the collection of articles on CCNY affairs at The Bertrand Russell Case . Russell soon joined the Barnes Foundation, giving lectures to a varied audience on the history of philosophy; this lecture forms the basis of A History of Western Philosophy . His relationship with Albert C. Barnes's eccentric soon deteriorated, and he returned to England in 1944 to rejoin the faculty of Trinity College.
Next life
Russell participated in many broadcasts through the BBC, in particular the The Brains Trust and the Third Program, on topical and philosophical topics. Today, Russell is a world-renowned outside academic, often the subject or author of magazine and newspaper articles, and called to offer opinions on a wide variety of subjects, even ordinary ones. On the way to one of his lectures in Trondheim, Russell was one of 24 survivors (among a total of 43 passengers) of a plane crash in Hommelvik in October 1948. He said he owed his life to smoke because the drowning people were in the non-smoking from the plane. The History of Western Philosophy (1945) became a best-seller and provided Russell with a steady income for the rest of his life.
In 1942, Russell argued in favor of moderate socialism, capable of overcoming his metaphysical principles, in the investigation of Dialectical Materialism, launched by the Austrian artist and philosopher Wolfgang Paalen in his journal DYN, saying, "I think metaphysics of Hegel and Marx's nonsense - Marx's claim to be 'science' is no more justified than Mary Baker Eddy does not mean that I am against socialism. "In 1943, Russell expressed support for Zionism:" I have come gradually to see that, in a dangerous and largely hostile world, it is important for Jews to have several countries that belong to them, some areas where they are not suspected of being foreigners, some countries that embody what is distinctive in their culture ".
In a speech in 1948, Russell said that if the Soviet Union's aggression continues, it would be morally far worse to go to war after the Soviet Union had an atomic bomb than previously had it, because if the Soviet Union did not have a bomb, a Western victory would come more. quickly and with fewer victims than if there were atomic bombs on both sides. At that time, only the United States had an atomic bomb, and the Soviet Union pursued a very aggressive policy toward the countries of Eastern Europe being absorbed into the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union. Many understand Russell's comments which means that Russell approves the first attack in the war with the Soviet Union, including Nigel Lawson, who was present when Russell talked about such things. Others, including Griffin, who obtained a speech transcript, argued that he only explained the usefulness of American atomic weapons in blocking the Soviet Union to continue its dominance in Eastern Europe. However, just after the atomic bomb exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Russell wrote letters, and published articles in newspapers from 1945 to 1948, stating clearly that it was morally justified and better to go to war against the Soviets using a temporary atomic bomb United States of America. possessed them and before the Soviet Union did so. In September 1949, a week after the USSR tested the first atomic bomb, but before it was known, Russell wrote that the Soviet Union would not be able to develop nuclear weapons because following Stalin's purge was merely science based on Marxist principles to be practiced in the Soviet Union.. After it was discovered that the USSR conducted its nuclear bomb test, Russell declared his position to advocate the total abolition of atomic weapons.
In 1948, Russell was invited by the BBC to deliver the first Reith Lecture - what would be a series of annual lectures, still broadcast by the BBC. His six-broadcast series, titled Authority and Individual , explores themes such as the role of individual initiatives in community development and the role of state control in a progressive society. Russell continues to write about philosophy. He wrote the introduction to Ernest Gellner's Words and Things , which were very critical of Ludwig Wittgenstein's thought and the philosophy of everyday language. Gilbert Ryle refuses to have the book featured in the philosophical journal Mind , which causes Russell to respond via The Times . The result was a one-month correspondence in The Times between supporters and critics of ordinary language philosophy, which only ended when this paper published a critical editorial from both sides but agreed with common language opponents. philosophy.
In the King's Birthday Award from June 9, 1949, Russell was awarded the Order of Merit, and the following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. When he was given the Order of Merit, George VI was friendly but slightly embarrassed to decorate the former jailbird, saying, "You sometimes behave in a way that would not have been done if generally adopted". Russell just smiled, but afterwards claimed that the answer "That's right, just like your brother" immediately comes to mind. In 1952, Russell was divorced by Spence, with whom he was very unhappy. Conrad, Russell's son by Spence, did not see his father between the time of divorce and 1968 (when his decision to meet his father caused a permanent offense with his mother).
Russell married his fourth wife, Edith Finch, immediately after the divorce, on December 15, 1952. They had known each other since 1925, and Edith had taught English at Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia, sharing the house for 20 years with old friend Russell Lucy Donnelly. Edith remained with him until his death, and, after all, their marriage was a happy, close, and loving marriage. Russell's eldest son, John suffers from a serious mental illness, which is a source of ongoing disputes between Russell and his ex-wife, Dora.
In September 1961, at the age of 89, Russell was jailed for seven days at Brixton Prison for "peace infraction" after taking part in anti-nuclear demonstrations in London. The judge offered to release her from prison if she promised herself to "behave well," which Russell replied: "No, I will not."
In 1962, Russell played a public role in the Cuban Missile Crisis: in a telegram exchange with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev assured him that the Soviet government would not be reckless. Russell sent this telegram to President Kennedy:
ACTION OF YOUR ACTIONS. HORIZONS IN HUMAN SURVIVAL. NO JUSTIFICATION MADE. CIVILIZED MAN TREATS IT. WE WILL NOT HAVE THE MASSIVE KILLER. ULTIMATUM MEANS WAR... END MADNESS THIS.
According to historian Peter Knight, after the murder of JFK, Russell, "encouraged by the emergence of the work of lawyer Mark Lane in the US... garnered the support of his fellow-and-left-leaning friends to form the Committee of Assassinated Killers in June 1964, a member including Michael Foot MP, Caroline Benn, publisher Victor Gollancz, author of John Arden and JB Priestley, and Oxford history professor Hugh Trevor-Roper. "Russell published a very important article weeks before the Warren Commission Report was published, establishing 16 Questions about Murder and likened Oswald's case to Dreyfus's affair in the late 19th century France, where the wrong country punished the innocent. Russell also criticized the American press for not paying attention to the critical voice of the official version.
Political causes
Bertrand Russell opposed the war from the start, his opposition to World War I was used as an excuse for his dismissal from Trinity College in Cambridge. This incident brings together two of his most controversial causes, as he fails to gain the status of Partner, who will protect him from dismissal, for he is unwilling to pretend to be a devout Christian, or at least avoid admitting he is an agnostic.
He then described the settlement of these issues as important for freedom of thought and expression, citing incidents in Free Thoughts and Official Propaganda, in which he explained that the expression of any idea, even the most obviously "bad", must be protected not only from direct state intervention, but also economic leverage and other means to be silenced:
The persecuted opinion strikes the majority as so horrible and immoral that a general principle of tolerance can not be held to apply to them.
But this is exactly the same view that allows the torture of the Inquisition.
Russell spent the 1950s and 1960s engaging in political causes primarily related to nuclear disarmament and opposing the Vietnam War. The Russell-Einstein Manifesto of 1955 was a document calling for nuclear disarmament and was signed by eleven prominent nuclear and intellectual physicists at the time. In 1966-1967, Russell worked with Jean-Paul Sartre and many other intellectual figures to form the Russell War Crimes Tribunal to investigate the behavior of the United States in Vietnam. He wrote numerous letters to world leaders during this period.
In 1956, just before and during the Suez Crisis, Russell declared his opposition to European imperialism in the Middle East. He views the crisis as another reminder of the urgent need for more effective mechanisms for international governance, and to restrict national sovereignty to places like the Suez Canal "where public interest is involved". At the same time Suez Crisis is happening, the world is also captivated by the Hungarian Revolution and the destruction of the next uprising by intervening Soviet forces. Russell drew criticism for speaking out against the Suez war while neglecting Soviet repression in Hungary, to which he responded that he did not criticize the Soviets "for lack of necessity, most of the so-called Western World culminated." Although he then pretended to be inattentive, at a time he was disgusted by the Soviet brutal response, and on 16 November 1956 he declared his consent to a declaration of support for the Hungarian scholars that Michael Polanyi had telegramed to the Soviet embassy in London twelve days earlier, shortly after Soviet troops entered Budapest.
In November 1957 Russell wrote an article addressed to US President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Soviet Prime Minister Nikita Khrushchev, who urged a summit to consider "coexistence conditions". Khrushchev replied that peace can indeed be served through such meetings. In January 1958, Russell expounded his views on The Observer, proposing the cessation of all nuclear weapons production, with Britain taking the first step by unilaterally suspending its own nuclear weapons program if necessary, and with Germany. "freed from all foreign armed forces and pledged to be neutral in any conflict between East and West". US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles replied to Eisenhower. The exchange of letters was published as The Vital Letters of Russell, Khrushchev, and Dulles .
Russell was asked by The liberal America's liberal magazine to outline his views on world peace. He urged that all nuclear weapons and constant flight trials by aircraft armed with nuclear weapons are stopped immediately, and negotiations are opened for the destruction of all hydrogen bombs, with a limited number of conventional nuclear devices to ensure a balance of power. He proposed that Germany be reunited and accept the Oder-Neisse line as its border, and that a neutral zone was established in Central Europe, consisting of the minimum of Germany, Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, with each country free of foreign troops and influence, and are prohibited from forming alliances with countries outside the zone. In the Middle East, Russell suggested that the West avoid opposing Arab nationalism, and proposed the formation of UN peacekeepers to guard the Israeli border to ensure that Israel was prevented from aggression and protected from it. He also advocated Western recognition of the People's Republic of China, and that it would be accepted by the UN with permanent seats in the UN Security Council.
He was in contact with Lionel Rogosin while the latter was filming his anti-war film Good Times, the Wonderful Times in the 1960s. He became a hero to many young members of the New Left. In early 1963, in particular, Russell became increasingly vocal in his disagreement with the Vietnam War, and felt that the policies of the US government there approached the genocide. In 1963 he became the recipient of the Prize of Jerusalem, a tribute to writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in society. In 1964 he was one of eleven world leaders who called for Israel and the Arab states to accept an arms embargo and international control of nuclear power and rocket arms. In October 1965 he tore the Labor party card because he suspected the Harold Wilson government would send troops to support the United States in Vietnam.
Past year and death
In June 1955, Russell had rented Plas Penrhyn in Penrhyndeudraeth, Merionethshire, Wales and on 5 July the following year became his main residence and Edith.
Russell published a three-volume autobiography in 1967, 1968, and 1969. Russell made a self-made cameo appearance in the Hindi anti-war Safe film, by Mohan Kumar, released in India in 1967. This was the only Russell appearance in a movie.
On November 23, 1969 he wrote a letter to The Times saying that the preparations for the trial of the Czechoslovak show were "very apprehensive". That same month he appealed to UN Secretary-General U Thant to support an international war crimes commission to investigate allegations of torture and genocide by the United States in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. The following month, he protested Alexei Kosygin over the expulsion of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn of the Soviet Union Writers.
On January 31, 1970 Russell issued a statement condemning "Israeli aggression in the Middle East", and in particular, an Israeli bombing carried out deep in Egyptian territory as part of the War of Attrition. He called for Israel's withdrawal to the pre-war border of Six Days. This is Russell's last statement or political action. It was read at the Parliament's International Conference in Cairo on February 3, 1970, the day after his death.
Russell died of influenza on February 2, 1970 at his home in Penrhyndeudraeth. His body was cremated at Colwyn Bay on February 5, 1970. In accordance with his will, there was no religious ceremony; the ashes are scattered in the Welsh mountains later that year. He left an estate worth Ã, Â £ 69,423. In 1980 a memorial to Russell was commissioned by the committee including philosopher A. J. Ayer. It consists of a statue of Russell at Red Lion Square in London carved by Marcelle Quinton.
Title and honor from birth
Russell holds his whole life style and honor the following:
- from birth to 1908: The Honorable Bertrand Arthur William Russell
- from 1908 to 1931: The Honorable Bertrand Arthur William Russell, FRS
- from 1931 to 1949: The Honorable Earl Russell, FRS
- from 1949 to death: The Honorable Earl Russell, OM, FRS
Maps Bertrand Russell
Views
Philosophy
Russell is generally credited with being one of the founders of analytic philosophy. He was deeply impressed by Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716), and wrote on every major area of ​​philosophy except aesthetics. He is very productive in the fields of metaphysics, logic and philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of language, ethics and epistemology. When Brand Blanshard asked Russell why he did not write about aesthetics, Russell replied that he did not know anything about it, "but that's not a very good reason, because my friends told me it does not prevent me writing on the subject other ".
In ethics, Russell regarded himself as a utilitarian.
For the advancement of science and protection of the right to freedom of expression, Russell advocated The Will to Doubt, the recognition that all human knowledge is the best guess, which must always be remembered:
None of our beliefs are true; all have at least a penumbra of obscurity and error . Methods to increase the degree of truth in our beliefs are known; they consist of hearing all sides, trying to ensure all relevant facts, controlling our own biases by discussing with people who have opposite biases, and fostering readiness to throw out a hypothesis that proves inadequate. These methods are practiced in science, and have built up the body of scientific knowledge.
Any scientific person whose view is truly scientific is prepared to acknowledge that what is acceptable to current scientific knowledge will necessarily require correction with the advance of the invention; even so, it is quite close to the truth to serve for most practical purposes, though not for all. In science, wherever something approaching indigenous knowledge can be found, a tentative and hesitant man's attitude .
Religion
Russell describes himself in 1947 as an agnostic, saying: "Therefore, in connection with the Olympic gods, speaking to a purely philosophical audience, I would say that I am an Agnostic. But speaking popularly, I think that we will all said in reference to the gods that we are Atheists.In the light of the Christian God, I must, I think, take exactly the same line. "For much of his adult life, Russell kept religion to be little more than superstition and, regardless of positive effects, mostly harmful to people. He believes that religion and religious views serve to hinder knowledge and foster fear and dependence, and be responsible for many of our world's wars, oppression, and misery. He was a member of the Advisory Council of the British Humanist Association and Humanist President of Cardiff until his death.
Society
Political and social activism occupied most of Russell's time for most of his life. Russell remained politically active almost to the end of his life, writing to and advising world leaders and lending his name to various causes.
Russell argues for "scientific society", where war will be abolished, population growth will be limited, and prosperity will be shared. He suggested the formation of "one world's highest government" capable of establishing peace, claiming that "the only thing that will redeem mankind is cooperation".
Russell is an active supporter of the Homosexual Law Reform Society, becoming one of the signatories of AE Dyson's letter of 1958 to The Times calling for a change in the law on male homosexual practices, partially legalized in 1967, when Russell is still alive.
In his "Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday" ("Postscript" in his book Autobiography, Russell writes: "I have lived in the pursuit of vision, personal and social, personal: to what noble matter, to what beautiful, for what is tender, to allow moments of insight to give wisdom at more ordinary moments Social: to see in the imagination of society to be created, where individuals grow free, and where hatred and greed and jealousy die because no one gives them food, the things I trust, and the world, for all its horrors, have made me unshakeable. "
Ancestor
Selected bibliography
Russell is the author of more than sixty books and more than two thousand articles. In addition, he wrote many pamphlets, introductions, and letters to the editor. A pamphlet entitled, 'I Appeal to Caesar': The Case of Opposition to Conscience, the ghost written for Margaret Hobhouse, the mother of peace activist imprisoned by Stephen Hobhouse, allegedly helped liberate the prisoners of hundreds of conscientious people. objection.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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